Comprehensive Industry Report: Global Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) Sheet Market

Comprehensive Industry Report: Global Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) Sheet Market

Executive Summary

This report provides a detailed analysis of the global Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) Sheet market, a critical segment within the broader plastics and composites industry. The core findings and key takeaways are as follows:

  1. Robust Market Growth: The global TPE market is a multi-billion dollar industry, valued at approximately $107.3 billion (RMB 1072.6 billion) in 2024, and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 4.1% to reach $142.2 billion by 2031 . The specific TPE sheet segment benefits from this overarching trend, driven by demand across automotive, medical, and consumer goods.
  2. Sustainability as a Core Driver: The segment for recycled TPEs is experiencing accelerated growth, with a projected CAGR of 5.6% from 2025-2031, pushing its market value from $1.5 billion in 2024 to an estimated $2.2 billion by 2031 . This reflects a powerful shift towards circular economy principles, presenting both a challenge and a significant opportunity.
  3. Material Diversification and Performance: TPEs are not a single material but a family of polymers, including SBCs, TPOs, TPUs, and high-performance variants like TPEE (Polyether Ester TPE). TPEE, in particular, is noted for its exceptional mechanical strength, fatigue resistance, and temperature stability (usable from -70°C to 200°C), making it critical for demanding applications in automotive and industrial sectors .
  4. Asia-Pacific as the Growth Epicenter: While production and consumption have historically been concentrated in North America and Europe, China is the dominant and fastest-growing market. Its domestic production capacity is expanding rapidly, with companies like Sichuan Chenguang and Liaoning Kelong leading local industrialization, reducing but not yet eliminating reliance on imports from global players like DSM, LG Chem, and DuPont .
  5. Competitive Intensity and Fragmentation: The market is characterized by the presence of major global chemical conglomerates (e.g., BASF, Dow, DuPont) and a thriving ecosystem of agile, specialized manufacturers (e.g., Zhejiang Shibo New Material). Competition is increasingly based on customization, application development expertise, and sustainable product portfolios rather than price alone .

I. Industry Overview and Definition

1.1. Core Definition, Scope, and Segmentation

Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPEs) are a class of copolymers that combine the performance properties of vulcanized rubber with the processing efficiency of thermoplastics. A TPE Sheet refers to TPE material processed into a flat, continuous profile of uniform thickness, sold to downstream manufacturers for fabrication into final products via cutting, thermoforming, or welding.

The industry scope is segmented as follows:

  • By Material Type:
    • Styrene Block Copolymers (SBCs – TPE-S): The largest volume segment, widely used for its soft touch and flexibility.
    • Thermoplastic Polyolefins (TPO – TPE-O): Dominant in automotive exteriors like bumper fascias.
    • Thermoplastic Polyurethanes (TPU): Known for high abrasion resistance, used in protective films and industrial belting.
    • Thermoplastic Vulcanizates (TPV): Offer superior heat and chemical resistance, a key alternative to thermoset rubber.
    • Polyether Ester TPE (TPEE – COPE): A high-performance engineering elastomer characterized by excellent mechanical strength, fatigue resistance, and a wide service temperature range (-70°C to 200°C) .
  • By Processing Method: The sheet form factor is typically produced via extrusion processes, though it can also be calendered or compression molded .
  • By End-Use Application: The scope is vast, covering automotive interiors & sealing, building & construction gaskets, medical device components, consumer goods, and packaging.

1.2. Historical Trajectory and Major Milestones

The development of TPEs has been a story of continuous material innovation. The first commercial TPEs, styrenic block copolymers, emerged in the 1960s. A significant milestone was reached in 1972 when DuPont (USA) and Toyobo (Japan) co-developed TPEE, launching their respective Hytrel and Pelprene brands . This introduced a new class of high-performance, engineering-grade TPEs to the market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, other global giants like DSM, BASF, and LG Chemical entered the fray, expanding the material portfolio. In China, industrialization began much later, with players like Sichuan Chenguang achieving the first commercial-scale TPEE production in 2002 . The 21st century has been defined by the diversification of TPEs into specialized applications and the recent, accelerated pivot towards bio-based and recycled materials.

1.3. Value Chain Analysis

The TPE sheet industry value chain can be broken down into four primary segments:

  • Upstream (Raw Materials): This includes the base petrochemical monomers (Styrene, Ethylene, Propylene, etc.), specialty chemicals (isocyanates for TPU), and an increasingly important stream of post-industrial and post-consumer recyclate. The volatility of crude oil prices directly impacts this segment.
  • Midstream (TPE Compound and Sheet Production): Companies in this segment compound the raw materials into pelletized TPE. These pellets are then melted and formed into continuous sheets through extrusion lines. This tier includes integrated chemical companies (e.g., Dow, BASF) and specialized compounders/formulators (e.g., Zhejiang Shibo New Material, which boasts a library of over 6,000 formulations) .
  • Downstream (Fabrication and End-Use Industries): Fabricators purchase TPE sheet rolls and convert them into finished goods via die-cutting, thermoforming, and RF welding. They serve a wide array of OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) in sectors such as automotive, medical, construction, and consumer electronics.
  • End-of-Life & Recycling: A nascent but rapidly growing segment focused on collecting, sorting, and reprocessing TPE waste back into the value chain, closing the material loop as seen in the recycled TPE market .

II. Market Size and Dynamics

2.1. Current Global Market Size and Regional Breakdown

The global TPE industry is substantial and growing. In 2024, the total market was valued at an estimated $107.3 billion (RMB 1072.6 billion) . While a precise breakdown for the “sheet” segment is not isolated in the search results, its demand is intrinsically linked to the broader TPE consumption patterns.

Historically, production and consumption have been concentrated in developed regions. As of 2004, for instance, the higher-value TPEE segment saw 53.0% of consumption in North America, 29.8% in Western Europe, and 10.7% in Japan . However, the global landscape has shifted dramatically. China has emerged as the single most significant growth market. In 2024, China accounted for a substantial portion of the global TPE market, and its share is projected to increase further by 2031 . Other Asia-Pacific regions, including Southeast Asia and India, are also expected to exhibit above-average growth rates.

Table: Global TPE Market Snapshot & Forecast (2024-2031)

Metric2024 Baseline2031 ProjectionCAGR (2025-2031)Key Source
Overall TPE Market Size$107.3 billion$142.2 billion4.1%
Recycled TPE Segment$1.5 billion$2.2 billion5.6%
TPE Tube SegmentN/A (Growing)N/AN/A

2.2. Market Growth Drivers

The expansion of the TPE sheet market is fueled by several powerful, interconnected drivers:

  • Macroeconomic and Behavioral Trends:
    • Lightweighting in Automotive: The relentless drive for fuel efficiency and reduced emissions in internal combustion engine vehicles, and extended range in electric vehicles (EVs), makes lightweight TPE sheets an attractive alternative to heavier metals and denser plastics. TPEE, for example, allows for part consolidation and thinner wall sections due to its high strength-to-weight ratio .
    • Healthcare and Hygiene Demand: The global focus on health, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has increased demand for single-use and soft-touch medical devices. TPE sheets are used in products like inflatable splints, medical bed pads, and fluid bags, valued for their clarity, softness, and biocompatibility .
    • Consumer Preference for Soft-Touch and Ergonomics: From tool handles and wearable device bands to kitchen utensils, consumers increasingly prefer products that are comfortable and aesthetically pleasing. TPE sheets are ideal for creating overmolded or laminated soft-touch surfaces .
  • Technological Drivers:
    • Material Science Advancements: Continuous R&D has led to TPE grades with enhanced properties: improved UV stability for outdoor applications, higher flame-retardant ratings for electronics (reaching UL94 V-0 ), and advanced adhesion properties for overmolding onto diverse substrates.
    • Sustainability and Circular Economy: This is arguably the most potent long-term driver. Regulations and consumer sentiment are pushing brands to adopt sustainable materials. The recycled TPE segment, growing at a 5.6% CAGR, is a direct response, transforming waste into valuable raw material and reducing dependency on virgin petrochemicals .

2.3. Key Market Restraints and Challenges

Despite a positive outlook, the industry faces significant headwinds:

  • Volatility of Raw Material Costs: TPEs are derived from petroleum-based feedstocks. Fluctuations in the price of crude oil and natural gas directly impact production costs and profit margins, creating pricing instability for both suppliers and customers.
  • Technical Performance Limitations: While high-performance TPEs like TPEE bridge many gaps, standard TPEs generally have limitations compared to thermoset rubbers, including lower maximum continuous service temperature, higher compression set, and potential susceptibility to creep and stress relaxation under constant load.
  • Intense Competition and Price Pressure: The market is crowded with global and regional players. In cost-sensitive applications, competition from low-cost producers, particularly in Asia, creates significant price pressure, forcing companies to compete on value-added services and innovation rather than price alone.
  • Complexity of Recycling Streams: While recycled TPE is a growth segment, the practical challenges of collecting, sorting, and cleaning post-consumer TPE waste to achieve consistent quality and performance remain non-trivial and costly .

2.4. 5-Year Market Forecast (2025-2029)

Based on the provided data, the global TPE sheet market is projected to maintain healthy growth through the next five years. Extrapolating from the broader market trends, the TPE sheet segment is expected to grow at a CAGR of approximately 4.5% to 5.5% from 2025 to 2029.

This forecast is underpinned by the following rationale:

  • The sustained growth in the automotive sector, particularly in EV production which requires specialized sealing and lightweight components.
  • The expansion of the medical and consumer goods sectors in emerging economies.
  • The accelerated adoption of recycled TPE sheets by brand owners committed to sustainability goals, growing faster than the overall market at 5.6% CAGR .
  • Potential trade disputes and tariffs, as noted in several market reports, represent a key uncertainty that could slightly temper this growth in specific regions .

III. Competitive Landscape Analysis

3.1. Market Share Analysis of Top 5 Players

The TPE market is fragmented, with the top five global players accounting for a significant but not dominant share of the overall market—approximately 30-40% in 2024 . The landscape varies by TPE type and region.

Table: Key Global Players in the TPE Industry (Including Sheet Suppliers)

CompanyGlobal PresenceKey Strengths & Product FocusRelevance to TPE Sheet
Kraton PolymersGlobalA leader in Styrenic Block Copolymers (SBCs).Major supplier of base TPE-S materials for compounding and sheet extrusion.
Dow ChemicalGlobalBroad portfolio of plastics and elastomers, including TPOs and TPUs.Integrated raw material supplier with significant market influence.
BASF SEGlobalDiverse chemical portfolio; strong in TPU and engineering plastics.Provides high-performance TPU grades suitable for sheet extrusion.
DuPontGlobalHistorical developer and leader in high-performance TPEE (Hytrel) .Critical player in the engineering-grade TPE sheet segment for automotive and industrial uses.
LG ChemGlobal (Strong in Asia)Major petrochemical player with a comprehensive TPE portfolio.Significant competitor in the Asian market and a key exporter to China .
Zhejiang Shibo New MaterialChina (Growing)Specialist compounder with 6,000+ formulations, focusing on customization and rapid service .Represents the agile, specialist segment, competing on flexibility and application development.

3.2. Detailed SWOT Analysis for Two Dominant Industry Leaders

1. DuPont (Focus on High-Performance TPEE)

  • Strengths:
    • Technology Leadership: Pioneering role in TPEE (since 1972) with a deep patent portfolio and unmatched technical knowledge of polyether ester chemistry .
    • Brand Reputation: The Hytrel brand is synonymous with quality and reliability in high-performance elastomers, commanding premium prices.
    • Application Expertise: Deep understanding of demanding applications in automotive (e.g., constant velocity joint boots, airbag covers) and industrial sectors.
  • Weaknesses:
    • High Cost Structure: Premium products come with a higher price tag, making them less competitive in commodity applications.
    • Exposure to Niche Markets: Heavy reliance on the automotive and industrial sectors, which are cyclical in nature.
  • Opportunities:
    • Electrification of Vehicles: Leverage material properties (lightweight, durability) to capture new opportunities in battery components, charging infrastructure, and specialized seals for EVs.
    • Sustainable Solutions: Develop bio-based or certified renewable content versions of TPEE to meet evolving sustainability demands.
  • Threats:
    • Increased Competition: Growing technical capabilities of Asian competitors, particularly from China and South Korea (e.g., LG Chem), could erode market share over time .
    • Economic Downturn: A global recession would disproportionately affect its core automotive and industrial customer base.

2. Zhejiang Shibo New Material (Representative of Agile Specialists)

  • Strengths:
    • Extreme Customization: Vast library of over 6,000 formulations allows for precise matching of customer requirements, a significant competitive advantage .
    • Operational Flexibility: With 11 out of 18 planned lines operational and a daily capacity of 40 tons, the company can handle both large and small, specialized orders efficiently .
    • Cost Competitiveness: As a domestic Chinese producer, it benefits from lower operational costs and proximity to a massive domestic market.
  • Weaknesses:
    • Limited Global Brand Recognition: Primarily known in the Chinese market and among specific export channels, unlike its global counterparts.
    • R&D Scope: While strong in formulation, it may lack the fundamental polymer synthesis R&D resources of a DuPont or BASF.
  • Opportunities:
    • Domestic Market Growth: Capitalize on China’s booming manufacturing sector and import substitution policies.
    • Vertical Integration: The company’s stated plan to “expand the industrial chain” and begin producing finished “product projects” represents a major opportunity to capture more value .
  • Threats:
    • Price Wars: Intense competition from other local compounders could lead to destructive price competition.
    • Raw Material Dependency: Like all players, it is vulnerable to price shocks from upstream petrochemical suppliers.

3.3. Emerging and Disruptive Competitors

The competitive threat is not only from within the TPE industry. Disruption comes from several fronts:

  • Recycled TPE Specialists: Companies like Kraiburg TPE (which has a dedicated recycled product line) and other specialists focused on Prism and Franplast are building a new value proposition based entirely on sustainability and circularity, appealing to environmentally conscious OEMs .
  • Advanced Material Companies: Developments in other polymer families, such as advanced silicones or new classes of soft thermoplastic polyolefins, could potentially displace TPEs in specific applications like medical or automotive sealing.
  • Digital Platforms and Distributors: The rise of B2B platforms that streamline the sourcing and specification of materials could disintermediate traditional sales channels, giving an edge to companies with robust digital capabilities.

IV. Technology and Innovation

4.1. Key Enabling Technologies and Their Impact

Innovation in TPE sheets is propelled by advancements in both materials and processing.

  • Reactive Extrusion: This technology allows for the in-situ polymerization and compatibilization of polymers during the compounding and sheet extrusion process. It enables the creation of entirely new polymer alloys with unique property sets that are not achievable by simple melt blending.
  • Nanotechnology and Additives: The incorporation of nano-clays, graphene, or other nano-fillers can dramatically enhance properties such as barrier performance (reducing permeability to gases and fuels), mechanical strength, and thermal stability without sacrificing processability or flexibility .
  • Advanced Compounding: Twin-screw extruders with sophisticated feeding and venting systems allow for precise control over morphology and dispersion. This is critical for producing high-quality TPVs and for incorporating high loadings of recycled content or bio-fillers without compromising quality.

4.2. R&D Investment Trends and Patent Landscape

R&D investment is heavily focused on two strategic pillars:

  1. Sustainability: A significant portion of R&D budgets is allocated to developing materials with recycled content, bio-based renewable feedstocks, and biodegradable or compostable TPE formulations. The goal is to reduce the carbon footprint while maintaining performance.
  2. Performance Enhancement: Research continues to push the boundaries of TPE capabilities. This includes developing softer grades (low Shore hardness), grades with improved chemical resistance to new automotive fluids or disinfectants, and materials with enhanced haptics (feel) and aesthetics.

The patent landscape is consequently active in areas covering:

  • New catalyst systems for more efficient polymerization.
  • Novel compatibilizers for creating stable TPE blends with high recycled content.
  • Specific formulations for emerging applications (e.g., TPEs for 3D printing filaments).

4.3. Future Technology Roadmaps

Looking forward, technology integration will define the next generation of TPE sheets:

  • Industry 4.0 and Smart Manufacturing: As seen at Zhejiang Shibo, the integration of real-time production monitoring systems will become standard . This allows for predictive maintenance, real-time quality control, and highly flexible production scheduling, reducing waste and improving consistency.
  • Functional Integration and Smart Materials: The future lies in TPE sheets that are more than just passive materials. R&D is exploring:
    • Electrically Conductive TPEs: for integrated wiring, anti-static protection, or sensors in automotive interiors or wearable devices.
    • IoT-Enabled Components: TPE sheets could be combined with printed sensors to create smart mats, floorings, or gaskets that monitor pressure, temperature, or presence.

V. Regulatory and Policy Environment

5.1. Major Governing Bodies and Key Regulations

The TPE sheet industry is subject to a complex web of regulations that vary by region and application.

  • General Product Safety:
    • EU: REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) regulates chemical substances.
    • USA: TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act) governs the introduction of new chemicals.
  • Application-Specific Regulations:
    • Medical Devices: Must comply with FDA (USA) CFR Title 21 and EU MDR (Medical Device Regulation), requiring extensive biocompatibility testing (e.g., USP Class VI, ISO 10993).
    • Food Contact: Regulations like FDA CFR Title 21 in the U.S. and EU Regulation 10/2011 set strict limits on migration of substances.
    • Automotive: Regulations on Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) emissions and odor inside vehicle cabins are increasingly stringent globally.
  • Environmental Regulations:
    • Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes are being implemented globally, pushing producers to manage the end-of-life of their products.
    • Restrictions on Hazardous Substances (RoHS, REACH SVHC) limit the use of certain heavy metals and phthalates.

5.2. Geopolitical and Trade Policy Impact

Trade policies are a significant source of uncertainty and risk. The reports highlight that “the U.S. 2025 tariff framework” is a major variable that could disrupt global supply chains . An escalation of trade barriers between major economic blocs (e.g., US-China, EU-UK) could lead to:

  • Regionalization of Supply Chains: Companies may be forced to establish local “for-local” production to avoid tariffs, as seen with the UK’s import data from Peru .
  • Cost Increases: Tariffs essentially function as a tax on imported raw materials or finished goods, squeezing margins and forcing price increases onto consumers.
  • Supply Disruptions: Sudden changes in trade policy can create temporary shortages and logistical nightmares.

5.3. Ethical and Sustainability Considerations

Beyond compliance, ethical considerations are becoming central to corporate strategy.

  • Circular Economy: The primary ethical imperative is to move away from a “take-make-dispose” linear model. Investing in recycled TPE technologies, as profiled in the dedicated report, is a direct response to this .
  • Carbon Footprint: There is growing pressure from investors and customers to measure, disclose, and reduce the greenhouse gas emissions associated with TPE production. This favors materials with recycled content due to their lower embedded carbon compared to virgin fossil-based alternatives.
  • Greenwashing: Companies making sustainability claims must be prepared to back them up with transparent, verifiable data and life-cycle assessments (LCAs) to avoid accusations of greenwashing.

VI. Financial and Investment Analysis

6.1. Industry Valuation Multiples (Illustrative)

As a specialty chemicals sub-sector, TPE companies often trade at valuations that reflect their growth profile and profitability. While specific multiples are highly company-dependent, illustrative averages for publicly traded, profitable TPE-focused firms or divisions might be in the range of:

  • Enterprise Value to Sales (EV/Sales): 1.5x – 2.5x
  • Price to Earnings (P/E): 15x – 25x

These multiples would be higher for companies with a strong portfolio of sustainable/recycled products or proprietary high-performance technologies (like TPEE), and lower for those focused on commoditized, standard-grade TPEs.

6.2. Recent Mergers, Acquisitions, and Funding Activities

The TPE industry has been active with consolidation, driven by the strategic goals of:

  • Portfolio Diversification: Large chemical companies acquiring smaller specialists to gain access to new technologies or markets (e.g., a TPV specialist being acquired by a polyolefin producer).
  • Geographic Expansion: Acquiring a regional player to gain immediate market access and manufacturing footprint.
  • Gaining Sustainable Technology: Acquiring companies with advanced recycling technologies or strong recycled product portfolios.

While the provided search results do not list specific recent M&A deals, the competitive landscape section and the analysis of major players indicate that this is an ongoing trend. Private equity has also shown interest in the sector, funding the growth of agile, platform-focused compounders.

6.3. Analysis of Profit Margins and Cost Structures

A typical cost structure for a TPE sheet manufacturer might be:

  • Cost of Raw Materials: 60-75% of total cost. This is the most significant and volatile component.
  • Labor and Manufacturing Overhead: 15-25%. This includes energy for extrusion, maintenance, and labor.
  • SG&A (Sales, General & Administrative): 5-10%. Includes R&D, marketing, and sales costs.
  • EBITDA Margin: 10-20%. This can vary widely, with high-performance, customized products (e.g., specific TPEE grades or medical-grade TPEs) commanding margins at the upper end, and standard commodities at the lower end. The recycled TPE segment is reported to have an average gross margin of around 20% .

VII. Strategic Recommendations and Outlook

7.1. Strategic Recommendations for Existing Practitioners

  • Differentiate through Specialization and Solutions: Avoid competing solely on price in commoditized segments. Instead, deepen expertise in high-growth, high-value niches such as medical-grade TPEs, flame-retardant grades for electronics, or specialized alloys for automotive soft-touch interiors. Emulate the “customization kitchen” model of Zhejiang Shibo .
  • Embrace the Sustainability Mandate as a Core Strategy: Proactively develop and market products with recycled content. Invest in building a robust supply chain for post-consumer and post-industrial recyclate. Transparency and certification (e.g., using mass balance approaches) will be key to capturing value from this major trend .
  • Forge Strategic Partnerships: Move beyond a supplier-customer relationship. Partner with key OEMs and fabricators in the early stages of product design to specify TPE sheets. Develop close ties with recyclers to secure quality feedstock. Consider partnerships with technology startups working on smart materials or advanced recycling.
  • Invest in Operational Excellence and Industry 4.0: Continue to automate and digitize manufacturing operations to improve yield, reduce energy consumption, and enhance flexibility. Real-time data monitoring, as implemented by leading players, is no longer a luxury but a necessity for remaining competitive .

7.2. Investment Thesis and Risk Assessment for New Investors

Investment Thesis: The TPE sheet market offers a compelling investment opportunity due to its position at the intersection of several powerful, long-term megatrends: lightweighting, healthcare growth, consumer ergonomics, and the global transition to a circular economy. The most attractive segments are high-performance TPEs (like TPEE) and recycled TPEs, which offer higher growth and better margins than the industry average.

Risk Assessment:

  • Raw Material Price Volatility: High risk. Mitigation requires strategic sourcing, hedging where possible, and implementing price adjustment clauses in customer contracts.
  • Geopolitical/Trade Policy Risk: Medium to High risk. Mitigation involves building a diversified, multi-regional manufacturing footprint.
  • Technological Disruption Risk: Medium risk. Mitigation requires continuous monitoring of the competitive material landscape and maintaining a strong internal R&D function.
  • Economic Cyclicality Risk: Medium risk. The industry’s dependence on automotive and construction makes it susceptible to economic downturns. Mitigation involves diversifying the end-market portfolio into less cyclical sectors like medical and consumer staples.

7.3. Long-Term Industry Outlook (10-Year Vision)

By 2035, the TPE sheet industry will be fundamentally transformed. It will be a smarter, more circular, and highly integrated sector.

  • Circularity will be Default: The use of recycled content will be standard practice, driven by regulation and consumer demand. “Virgin fossil-based” TPEs will be niche products for only the most demanding applications. Chemical recycling of TPEs will become commercially viable.
  • Digital Thread will be Pervasive: From molecular structure to final product performance, digital twins and blockchain technology will provide full material traceability, enabling precise sustainability reporting and quality control.
  • Mass Customization will be the Norm: Flexible manufacturing and AI-driven formulation will allow for the economic production of ultra-customized TPE sheet batches, down to a single roll, tailored for a specific customer’s product and manufacturing process.
  • Functional Materials will be Mainstream: TPE sheets will routinely incorporate sensing, actuation, or conductive properties, moving from being a passive component to an active, functional part of the final product’s system.

In conclusion, the TPE sheet market is on a robust growth trajectory, shaped by innovation and sustainability. For practitioners and investors alike, success will hinge on strategic agility, a deep commitment to circular principles, and an unwavering focus on creating differentiated value in a dynamic and competitive global marketplace.


References (List of Titles and Authors/Sources from Search Results):

  1. Title: 热塑性聚酯弹性体产业发展需提速 (Thermoplastic Polyester Elastomer Industry Development Needs to Accelerate)
    Author/Source: Zhang Li, Li Yujing (Petroleum and Chemical Industry Planning Institute)
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